patmedfarПациентоориентированная медицина и фармацияPatient-Oriented Medicine and Pharmacy2949-1924LLC Izdatelstvo OKI10.37489/2949-1924-0012patmedfar-26Research ArticleФИЗИЧЕСКАЯ И РЕАБИЛИТАЦИОННАЯ МЕДИЦИНАPHYSICAL AND REHABILITATION MEDICINEСтрессовая реакция при физических нагрузках, ось кишка-мозг, кишечная микробиота у спортсменов: обзор литературыStress response during exercise, gut-brain axis, and gut microbiota in athletes: a review of the literaturehttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-9771-6325МаргазинВ. А.MargazinV. A.

Маргазин Владимир Алексеевич — доктор медицинских наук, заслуженный врач РФ, профессор кафедры медико-биологических основ спорта. РИНЦ Author ID: 702664.

Ярославль

Margazin Vladimir A. — M. D., D. Sc. (Medicine), Honored Doctor of the Russian Federation, Professor of the department. RSCI Author ID: 702664.

Yaroslavl

margazin@yandex.ruГансбургскийМ. А.GansburgskiyM. A.

Гансбургский Михаил Андреевич — кандидат медицинских наук, доцент кафедры физической культуры и спорта. РИНЦ Author ID: 294904.

Ярославль

Gansburgskiy Mikhail A. — M. D., Ph. D. (Medicine), Associate Professor of the department of Physical Education and Sports. RSCI Author ID: 294904

Yaroslavl

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4096-7075КоромысловА. В.KoromyslovA. V.

Коромыслов Александр Владимирович — кандидат медицинских наук, доцент кафедры медико-биологических основ спорта. РИНЦ Author ID: 929133.

Ярославль

Koromyslov Alexander V. — M. D., Ph. D. (Medicine), associate Professor of the Department of Medical and Biological Sport Fundamentals. RSCI Author ID: 929133.

Yaroslavl

korsacfif1@yandex.ruФГБОУ ВО «Ярославский государственный педагогический университет им. К.Д. Ушинского» Министерства просвещения Российской ФедерацииРоссияYaroslavl State Pedagogical University named after K. D. UshinskyRussian FederationФГБОУ ВО «Ярославский государственный медицинский университет» Министерства здравоохранения Российской ФедерацииРоссияYaroslavl State Medical UniversityRussian Federation202306062023123644Copyright © Маргазин В.А., Гансбургский М.А., Коромыслов А.В., 20232023Маргазин В.А., Гансбургский М.А., Коромыслов А.В.Margazin V.A., Gansburgskiy M.A., Koromyslov A.V.Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.https://www.pomph.ru/jour/article/view/26

Усталость, нарушения настроения, недостаточная работоспособность и желудочно-кишечные расстройства характерны для спортсменов во время тренировок и соревнований. Психосоциальные и физические потребности во время интенсивных физических нагрузок могут инициировать стрессовую реакцию, активирующую симпато-адреналовую и гипоталамо-гипофизарно-надпочечниковую оси, что приводит к выбросу стрессовых и катаболических гормонов, воспалительных цитокинов и микробных молекул. В кишечнике обитают триллионы микроорганизмов, которые играют фундаментальную роль во многих аспектах биологии человека, включая метаболизм, нейроэндокринную и иммунную функции. Микробиом и его влияние на поведение хозяина, кишечный барьер и иммунитет являются критическим аспектом оси кишка-мозг. Получены данные, показывающие наличие высокой корреляции между физическим и эмоциональным стрессом во время физических упражнений и изменениями состава желудочно-кишечной микробиоты. Модификации состава микробиоты у профессиональных атлетов могут способствовать повышению эффективности тренировок, улучшению спортивных результатов и сокращать период восстановления после интенсивных физических нагрузок.

Fatigue, mood disturbances, lack of performance, and gastrointestinal disturbances are common among athletes during training and competition. Psychosocial and physical demands during intense exercise can initiate a stress response that activates the sympathoadrenal and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axes, resulting in the release of stress and catabolic hormones, inflammatory cytokines, and microbial molecules. The gut is home to trillions of microorganisms that play fundamental roles in many aspects of human biology, including metabolism, neuroendocrine, and immune function. The microbiome and its influence on host behavior, the gut barrier, and immunity is a critical aspect of the gut-brain axis. Data have been obtained showing a high correlation between physical and emotional stress during exercise and changes in the composition of the gastrointestinal microbiota. Modifications to the composition of the microbiota in professional athletes can improve training efficiency, improve athletic performance and shorten the recovery period after intense physical exertion.

спортсменфизические нагрузкистрессмикробиотаось кишка-мозгathletephysical activitystressmicrobiotagut-brain axisРабота выполнялась без спонсорской поддержкиThe work was carried out without sponsorship.ReferencesGalley JD, Nelson MC, Yu Z, et al. Exposure to a social stressor disrupts the community structure of the colonic mucosa-associated microbiota. BMC Microbiol. 2014;14:189. doi: 10.1186/1471-2180-14-189Galley JD, Nelson MC, Yu Z, et al. Exposure to a social stressor disrupts the community structure of the colonic mucosa-associated microbiota. BMC Microbiol. 2014;14:189. doi: 10.1186/1471-2180-14-189Clark A, Mach N. Exercise-induced stress behavior, gutmicrobiota brain axis and diet: a systematic review for athletes. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2016;13:43. doi: 10.1186/s12970-016-0155-6Clark A, Mach N. Exercise-induced stress behavior, gutmicrobiota brain axis and diet: a systematic review for athletes. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2016;13:43. doi: 10.1186/s12970-016-0155-6Morgan JA, Corrigan F, Baune BT. Effects of physical exercise on central nervous system functions: A review of brain region specific adaptations. J. Mol. Psychiatry. 2015;3:3. doi: 10.1186/s40303-015-0010-8Morgan JA, Corrigan F, Baune BT. Effects of physical exercise on central nervous system functions: A review of brain region specific adaptations. J. Mol. Psychiatry. 2015;3:3. doi: 10.1186/s40303-015-0010-8Маргазин В. А., Гансбургский М. А., Коромыслов А. В., Лебедев А. В. Патогенез симптомов желудочно-кишечного тракта у спортсменов при различных видах физических нагрузок: обзор литературы. Лечебная физкультура и спортивная медицина. 2018;46(2):32–42. http://lfksport.ru/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/146.pdf.Margazin VA, Gansburgskiy MA, Koromyslov AV, Lebedev AV. Pathogenesis of symptoms of the gastrointestinal tract in athletes with various types of physical activity: a review of the literature. Lechebnaya fizkul'tura i sportivnaya meditsina. 2018;146(2):32–42. (In Russ.).Lin TW, Chen SJ, Huang TY, et al. Different types of exercise induce differential effects on neuronal adaptations and memory performance. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 2012;97:140–7. doi: 10.1016/j.nlm.2011.10.006Lin TW, Chen SJ, Huang TY, et al. Different types of exercise induce differential effects on neuronal adaptations and memory performance. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 2012;97:140–7. doi: 10.1016/j.nlm.2011.10.006Purvis D, Gonsalves S, Deuster PA. Physiological and psychological fatigue in extreme conditions: Overtraining and elite athletes. PM R. 2010;2:442– 50. doi: 10.1016/j.pmrj.2010.03.025Purvis D, Gonsalves S, Deuster PA. Physiological and psychological fatigue in extreme conditions: Overtraining and elite athletes. PM R. 2010;2:442– 50. doi: 10.1016/j.pmrj.2010.03.025Mackinnon LT. Overtraining effects on immunity and performance in athletes. Immun. Cell Biol. 2000; 78:502–9. doi: 10.1111/j.1440–1711.2000.t01-7-.xMackinnon LT. Overtraining effects on immunity and performance in athletes. Immun. Cell Biol. 2000; 78:502–9. doi: 10.1111/j.1440–1711.2000.t01-7-.xUlrich-Lai YM, Herman JP. Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress responses. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2009;10:397–409. doi: 10.1038/nrn2647Ulrich-Lai YM, Herman JP. Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress responses. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2009;10:397–409. doi: 10.1038/nrn2647Martins AS, Crescenzi A, Stern JE, et al. Hypertension and exercise training differentially affect oxytocin and oxytocin receptor expression in the brain. Hypertension. 2005;46:1004–9. doi: 10.1161/01.HYP.0000175812.03322.59Martins AS, Crescenzi A, Stern JE, et al. Hypertension and exercise training differentially affect oxytocin and oxytocin receptor expression in the brain. Hypertension. 2005;46:1004–9. doi: 10.1161/01.HYP.0000175812.03322.59Eisenstein M. Microbiome: Bacterial broadband. Nature. 2016;533:104–6. doi: 10.1038/533S104aEisenstein M. Microbiome: Bacterial broadband. Nature. 2016;533:104–6. doi: 10.1038/533S104aRhee SH, Pothoulakis C, Mayer EA. Principles and clinical implications of the brain-gut-enteric microbiota axis. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2009;6:306–14. doi: 10.1038/nrgastro.2009.35Rhee SH, Pothoulakis C, Mayer EA. Principles and clinical implications of the brain-gut-enteric microbiota axis. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2009;6:306–14. doi: 10.1038/nrgastro.2009.35Lyte M, Vulchanova L, Brown DR. Stress at the intestinal surface: Catecholamines and mucosa-bacteria interactions. Cell Tissue Res. 2011; 343:23–32. doi: 10.1007/s00441-010-1050-0Lyte M, Vulchanova L, Brown DR. Stress at the intestinal surface: Catecholamines and mucosa-bacteria interactions. Cell Tissue Res. 2011; 343:23–32. doi: 10.1007/s00441-010-1050-0Stilling RM, Dinan TG, Cryan JF. Microbial genes, brain & behaviour — epigenetic regulation of the gut-brain axis. Genes Brain Behav. 2014;13:69–86. doi: 10.1111/gbb.12109Stilling RM, Dinan TG, Cryan JF. Microbial genes, brain & behaviour — epigenetic regulation of the gut-brain axis. Genes Brain Behav. 2014;13:69–86. doi: 10.1111/gbb.12109Li J, Jia H, Cai X, et al. An integrated catalog of reference genes in the human gut microbiome. Nat. Biotechnol. 2014;32:834–41. doi: 10.1038/nbt.2942Li J, Jia H, Cai X, et al. An integrated catalog of reference genes in the human gut microbiome. Nat. Biotechnol. 2014;32:834–41. doi: 10.1038/nbt.2942Olbricht H, Twadell K, Sandel B, et al. Is There a Universal Endurance Microbiota? Microorganisms. 2022; Nov 9;10 (11):2213. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms10112213Olbricht H, Twadell K, Sandel B, et al. Is There a Universal Endurance Microbiota? Microorganisms. 2022; Nov 9;10 (11):2213. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms10112213Rajilic-Stojanovic M, de Vos WM. The first 1000 cultured species of the human gastrointestinal microbiota. FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 2014;38:996–1047. doi: 10.1111/1574–6976.12075Rajilic-Stojanovic M, de Vos WM. The first 1000 cultured species of the human gastrointestinal microbiota. FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 2014;38:996–1047. doi: 10.1111/1574–6976.12075Flint HJ, Bayer EA, Rincon MT, et al. Polysaccharide utilization by gut bacteria: Potential for new insights from genomic analysis. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2008;6:121–31. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro1817Flint HJ, Bayer EA, Rincon MT, et al. Polysaccharide utilization by gut bacteria: Potential for new insights from genomic analysis. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2008;6:121–31. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro1817Mach N, Berri M, Estelle J, et al. Early-life establishment of the swine gut microbiome and impact on host phenotypes. Environ. Microbiol. Rep. 2015;7:554–69. doi: 10.1111/1758–2229.12285Mach N, Berri M, Estelle J, et al. Early-life establishment of the swine gut microbiome and impact on host phenotypes. Environ. Microbiol. Rep. 2015;7:554–69. doi: 10.1111/1758–2229.12285Mohr AE, Jäger R, Carpenter KC et al. The athletic gut microbiota. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2020; May 12;17(1):24. doi: 10.1186/s12970-020-00353-wMohr AE, Jäger R, Carpenter KC et al. The athletic gut microbiota. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2020; May 12;17(1):24. doi: 10.1186/s12970-020-00353-wFontana F, Longhi G, Tarracchini C, et al. The human gut microbiome of athletes: metagenomic and metabolic insights. Microbiome. 2023; Feb 14;11(1):27. doi: 10.1186/s40168-023-01470-9Fontana F, Longhi G, Tarracchini C, et al. The human gut microbiome of athletes: metagenomic and metabolic insights. Microbiome. 2023; Feb 14;11(1):27. doi: 10.1186/s40168-023-01470-9Nicholson JK, Holmes E, Kinross J, et al. Hostgut microbiota metabolic interactions. Science. 2012;336:1262–7. doi: 10.1126/science.1223813Nicholson JK, Holmes E, Kinross J, et al. Hostgut microbiota metabolic interactions. Science. 2012;336:1262–7. doi: 10.1126/science.1223813Moloney RD, Desbonnet L, Clarke G, et al. The microbiome: Stress, health and disease. Mamm. Genome. 2014;25:49–74. doi: 10.1007/s00335-013-9488-5Moloney RD, Desbonnet L, Clarke G, et al. The microbiome: Stress, health and disease. Mamm. Genome. 2014;25:49–74. doi: 10.1007/s00335-013-9488-5Mach N and Fuster-Botella D. Endurance exercise and gut microbiota: A review. J. Sport Health Sci. 2017; Jun;6(2):179–97. doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2016.05.001. Epub 2016 May 10.Mach N and Fuster-Botella D. Endurance exercise and gut microbiota: A review. J. Sport Health Sci. 2017; Jun;6(2):179–97. doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2016.05.001. Epub 2016 May 10.Tarracchini Ch, Fontana F, Lugli GA et al. Investigation of the Ecological Link between Recurrent Microbial Human Gut Communities and Physical Activity. Microbiol. Spectr. 2022; Apr 27;10(2):e0042022. doi: 10.1128/spectrum.00420–22. Epub 2022 Apr 4.Tarracchini Ch, Fontana F, Lugli GA et al. Investigation of the Ecological Link between Recurrent Microbial Human Gut Communities and Physical Activity. Microbiol. Spectr. 2022; Apr 27;10(2):e0042022. doi: 10.1128/spectrum.00420–22. Epub 2022 Apr 4.Dziewiecka H, Buttar HS, Kasperska A, et al. Physical activity induced alterations of gut microbiota in humans: a systematic review. BMC Sports Sci. Med. Rehabil. 2022; Jul 7;14(1):122. doi: 10.1186/s13102-022-00513-2Dziewiecka H, Buttar HS, Kasperska A, et al. Physical activity induced alterations of gut microbiota in humans: a systematic review. BMC Sports Sci. Med. Rehabil. 2022; Jul 7;14(1):122. doi: 10.1186/s13102-022-00513-2Marttinen M, Ala-Jaakkola R, Laitila A, Lehtinen MJ. Gut Microbiota, Probiotics and Physical Performance in Athletes and Physically Active Individuals. Nutrients. 2020; Sep 25;12(10):2936. doi: 10.3390/nu12102936Marttinen M, Ala-Jaakkola R, Laitila A, Lehtinen MJ. Gut Microbiota, Probiotics and Physical Performance in Athletes and Physically Active Individuals. Nutrients. 2020; Sep 25;12(10):2936. doi: 10.3390/nu12102936Брагина Т. В., Елизарова Е. В., Шевелева С. А. Кишечный микробиот спортсменов. Вопросы питания. 2021;90(4):36–52. doi: 10.3029/0042-8833-2021-90-4-36-52. Epub 2021 22 июля.Bragina TV, Yelizarova YeV, Sheveleva SA. Intestinal microbiota of athletes. Voprosy pitaniya. 2021;90 (4):36–52. (In Russ.).Hughes RL, Holscher HD. Fueling Gut Microbes: A Review of the Interaction between Diet, Exercise, and the Gut Microbiota in Athletes. Adv. Nutr. 2021; Dec 1;12(6):2190–215. doi: 10.1093/advances/nmab077Hughes RL, Holscher HD. Fueling Gut Microbes: A Review of the Interaction between Diet, Exercise, and the Gut Microbiota in Athletes. Adv. Nutr. 2021; Dec 1;12(6):2190–215. doi: 10.1093/advances/nmab077Herman JP. Neural control of chronic stress adaptation. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 2013;7:61. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00061Herman JP. Neural control of chronic stress adaptation. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 2013;7:61. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00061Angeli A, Minetto M, Dovio A, et al. The overtraining syndrome in athletes: A stress-related disorder. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 2004;27:603–12. doi: 10.1007/BF03347487Angeli A, Minetto M, Dovio A, et al. The overtraining syndrome in athletes: A stress-related disorder. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 2004;27:603–12. doi: 10.1007/BF03347487Hill EE, Zack E, Battaglini C, et al. Exercise and circulating cortisol levels: The intensity threshold effect. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 2008;31:587–91. doi: 10.1007/BF03345606Hill EE, Zack E, Battaglini C, et al. Exercise and circulating cortisol levels: The intensity threshold effect. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 2008;31:587–91. doi: 10.1007/BF03345606Cronin O, Molloy MG, Shanahan F. Exercise, fitness, and the gut. Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol. 2016; 32:67–73. doi: 10.1097/MOG.0000000000000240Cronin O, Molloy MG, Shanahan F. Exercise, fitness, and the gut. Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol. 2016; 32:67–73. doi: 10.1097/MOG.0000000000000240Carabotti M, Scirocco A, Maselli MA, et al. The gut-brain axis: Interactions between enteric microbiota, central and enteric nervous systems. Ann. Gastroenterol. 2015;28:203–9. PMID: 25830558; PMCID: PMC4367209.Carabotti M, Scirocco A, Maselli MA, et al. The gut-brain axis: Interactions between enteric microbiota, central and enteric nervous systems. Ann. Gastroenterol. 2015;28:203–9. PMID: 25830558; PMCID: PMC4367209.Marchesi JR, Adams DH, Fava F, et al. The gut microbiota and host health: A new clinical frontier. Gut. 2016;65:330–9. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2015-309990Marchesi JR, Adams DH, Fava F, et al. The gut microbiota and host health: A new clinical frontier. Gut. 2016;65:330–9. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2015-309990Holzer P, Farzi A. Neuropeptides and the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2014;817: 195–219. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4939-0897-4_9Holzer P, Farzi A. Neuropeptides and the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2014;817: 195–219. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4939-0897-4_9Barrett E, Ross RP, O'Toole PW, et al. Gamma-aminobutyric acid production by culturable bacteria from the human intestine. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2012;113:411–27. doi: 10.1111/j.1365–2672.2012.05344.xBarrett E, Ross RP, O'Toole PW, et al. Gamma-aminobutyric acid production by culturable bacteria from the human intestine. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2012;113:411–27. doi: 10.1111/j.1365–2672.2012.05344.xHsu YC, Chen HI, Kuo YM, et al. Chronic treadmill running in normotensive rats resets the resting blood pressure to lower levels by upregulating the hypothalamic gabaergic system. J. Hypertens. 2011;29:2339–48. doi: 10.1097/HJH.0b013e32834c628fHsu YC, Chen HI, Kuo YM, et al. Chronic treadmill running in normotensive rats resets the resting blood pressure to lower levels by upregulating the hypothalamic gabaergic system. J. Hypertens. 2011;29:2339–48. doi: 10.1097/HJH.0b013e32834c628fRamson R, Jurimae J, Jurimae T, et al. The effect of 4-week training period on plasma neuropeptide y, leptin and ghrelin responses in male rowers. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2012;112:1873–80. doi: 10.1007/s00421-011-2166-yRamson R, Jurimae J, Jurimae T, et al. The effect of 4-week training period on plasma neuropeptide y, leptin and ghrelin responses in male rowers. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2012;112:1873–80. doi: 10.1007/s00421-011-2166-ySaunders PR, Santos J, Hanssen NP, et al. Physical and psychological stress in rats enhances colonic epithelial permeability via peripheral CRH. Dig. Dis. Sci. 2002;47:208–15. doi: 10.1023/A:1013204612762Saunders PR, Santos J, Hanssen NP, et al. Physical and psychological stress in rats enhances colonic epithelial permeability via peripheral CRH. Dig. Dis. Sci. 2002;47:208–15. doi: 10.1023/A:1013204612762Eisenhofer G, Aneman A, Friberg P, et al. Substantial production of dopamine in the human gastrointestinal tract. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1997;82:3864–71. doi: 10.1210/jcem.82.11.4339Eisenhofer G, Aneman A, Friberg P, et al. Substantial production of dopamine in the human gastrointestinal tract. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1997;82:3864–71. doi: 10.1210/jcem.82.11.4339Heijnen S, Hommel B, Kibele A, et al. Neuromodulation of aerobic exercise-a review. Front Psychol. 2016; Jan 7;6:1890. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01890.eCollection2015.Heijnen S, Hommel B, Kibele A, et al. Neuromodulation of aerobic exercise-a review. Front Psychol. 2016; Jan 7;6:1890. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01890.eCollection2015.Foster J. Gut-brain communication: How the microbiome influences anxiety and depression. Europ. Neuro Psycho Pharmacol. 2015;25:14.Foster J. Gut-brain communication: How the microbiome influences anxiety and depression. Europ. Neuro Psycho Pharmacol. 2015;25:14.Sudo N, Chida Y, Aiba Y, et al. Postnatal microbial colonization programs the hypothalamic- pituitary-adrenal system for stress response in mice. J. Physiol. 2004;558:263–75. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2004.063388Sudo N, Chida Y, Aiba Y, et al. Postnatal microbial colonization programs the hypothalamic- pituitary-adrenal system for stress response in mice. J. Physiol. 2004;558:263–75. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2004.063388Mirescu C, Peters JD, Gould E. Early life experience alters response of adult neurogenesis to stress. Nat. Neurosci. 2004;7:841–6. doi: 10.1038/nn129Mirescu C, Peters JD, Gould E. Early life experience alters response of adult neurogenesis to stress. Nat. Neurosci. 2004;7:841–6. doi: 10.1038/nn129Bermon S, Petriz B, Kajeniene A, et al. The microbiota: An exercise immunology perspective. Exerc. Immunol. Rev. 2015;21:70–9. PMID: 25825908.Bermon S, Petriz B, Kajeniene A, et al. The microbiota: An exercise immunology perspective. Exerc. Immunol. Rev. 2015;21:70–9. PMID: 25825908.Gareau MG, Silva MA, Perdue MH. Pathophysiological mechanisms of stress-induced intestinal damage. Curr. Mol. Med. 2008;8:274–81. doi: 10.2174/156652408784533760Gareau MG, Silva MA, Perdue MH. Pathophysiological mechanisms of stress-induced intestinal damage. Curr. Mol. Med. 2008;8:274–81. doi: 10.2174/156652408784533760Rao R, Samak G. Role of glutamine in protection of intestinal epithelial tight junctions. J. Epithel. Biol. Pharmacol. 2012;5:47–54. doi: 10.2174/1875044301205010047Rao R, Samak G. Role of glutamine in protection of intestinal epithelial tight junctions. J. Epithel. Biol. Pharmacol. 2012;5:47–54. doi: 10.2174/1875044301205010047Brown WM, Davison GW, McClean CM, et al. A systematic review of the acute effects of exercise on immune and inflammatory indices in untrained adults. Sports Med. Open. 2015;1:35. doi: 10.1186/s40798-015-0032-xBrown WM, Davison GW, McClean CM, et al. A systematic review of the acute effects of exercise on immune and inflammatory indices in untrained adults. Sports Med. Open. 2015;1:35. doi: 10.1186/s40798-015-0032-xZuhl M, Schneider S, Lanphere K, et al. Exercise regulation of intestinal tight junction proteins. Br. J. Sports Med. 2014;48:980–6. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2012–091585Zuhl M, Schneider S, Lanphere K, et al. Exercise regulation of intestinal tight junction proteins. Br. J. Sports Med. 2014;48:980–6. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2012–091585Ferrier L. Significance of increased human colonic permeability in response to corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH). Gut. 2008;57:7–9. doi: 10.1136/gut.2007.129841Ferrier L. Significance of increased human colonic permeability in response to corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH). Gut. 2008;57:7–9. doi: 10.1136/gut.2007.129841Wallon C, Yang PC, Keita AV, et al. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) regulates macromolecular permeability via mast cells in normal human colonic biopsies in vitro. Gut. 2008;57:50–8. doi: 10.1136/gut.2006.117549Wallon C, Yang PC, Keita AV, et al. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) regulates macromolecular permeability via mast cells in normal human colonic biopsies in vitro. Gut. 2008;57:50–8. doi: 10.1136/gut.2006.117549Lamprecht M, Bogner S, Schippinger G, et al. Probiotic supplementation affects markers of intestinal barrier, oxidation, and inflammation in trained men; a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2012;9:45. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-9-45Lamprecht M, Bogner S, Schippinger G, et al. Probiotic supplementation affects markers of intestinal barrier, oxidation, and inflammation in trained men; a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2012;9:45. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-9-45Lambert GP. Stress-induced gastrointestinal barrier dysfunction and its inflammatory effects. J. Anim. Sci. 2009;87:101–8. doi: 10.2527/jas.2008–1339Lambert GP. Stress-induced gastrointestinal barrier dysfunction and its inflammatory effects. J. Anim. Sci. 2009;87:101–8. doi: 10.2527/jas.2008–1339van Wijck K, Lenaerts K, Grootjans J, et al. Physiology and pathophysiology of splanchnic hypoperfusion and intestinal injury during exercise: Strategies for evaluation and prevention. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2012;303:155–68. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.00066.2012van Wijck K, Lenaerts K, Grootjans J, et al. Physiology and pathophysiology of splanchnic hypoperfusion and intestinal injury during exercise: Strategies for evaluation and prevention. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2012;303:155–68. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.00066.2012Brock-Utne JG, Gaffin SL, Wells MT, et al. Endotoxaemia in exhausted runners after a long-distance race. S. Afr. Med J. 1988;73(9):533–6. PMID: 3375945.Brock-Utne JG, Gaffin SL, Wells MT, et al. Endotoxaemia in exhausted runners after a long-distance race. S. Afr. Med J. 1988;73(9):533–6. PMID: 3375945.Gleeson M. Immune function in sport and exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. (1985) 2007;103:693–9. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00008.2007Gleeson M. Immune function in sport and exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. (1985) 2007;103:693–9. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00008.2007Neish AS. Mucosal immunity and the microbiome. Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc. 2014;11:28–32. doi: 10.1513/AnnalsATS.201306-161MGNeish AS. Mucosal immunity and the microbiome. Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc. 2014;11:28–32. doi: 10.1513/AnnalsATS.201306-161MGRedondo N, Gheorghe A, Serrano R, et al. Hydragut study: Influence of hydration status on the gut microbiota and their impact on the immune system. The FASEB J. 2015;29:1.Redondo N, Gheorghe A, Serrano R, et al. Hydragut study: Influence of hydration status on the gut microbiota and their impact on the immune system. The FASEB J. 2015;29:1.Costa KA, Soares AD, Wanner SP, et al. L-arginine supplementation prevents increases in intestinal permeability and bacterial translocation in male Swiss mice subjected to physical exercise under environmental heat stress. J. Nutr. 2014;144:218–23. doi: 10.3945/jn.113.183186Costa KA, Soares AD, Wanner SP, et al. L-arginine supplementation prevents increases in intestinal permeability and bacterial translocation in male Swiss mice subjected to physical exercise under environmental heat stress. J. Nutr. 2014;144:218–23. doi: 10.3945/jn.113.183186Puddu A, Sanguineti R, Montecucco F, et al. Evidence for the gut microbiota short-chain fatty acids as key pathophysiological molecules improving diabetes. Mediators Inflamm. 2014;2014:162021. doi: 10.1155/2014/162021. Epub 2014 Aug 17.Puddu A, Sanguineti R, Montecucco F, et al. Evidence for the gut microbiota short-chain fatty acids as key pathophysiological molecules improving diabetes. Mediators Inflamm. 2014;2014:162021. doi: 10.1155/2014/162021. Epub 2014 Aug 17.den Besten G, van Eunen K, Groen AK, et al. The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and host energy metabolism. J. Lipid Res. 2013;54:2325–40. doi: 10.1194/jlr.R036012den Besten G, van Eunen K, Groen AK, et al. The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and host energy metabolism. J. Lipid Res. 2013;54:2325–40. doi: 10.1194/jlr.R036012Canani RB, Costanzo MD, Leone L, et al. Potential beneficial effects of butyrate in intestinal and extraintestinal diseases. World J. Gastroen- terol. 2011;17:1519–28. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v17.i12.1519Canani RB, Costanzo MD, Leone L, et al. Potential beneficial effects of butyrate in intestinal and extraintestinal diseases. World J. Gastroen- terol. 2011;17:1519–28. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v17.i12.1519Matsumoto M, Inoue R, Tsukahara T, et al. Voluntary running exercise alters microbiota composition and increases n-butyrate concentration in the rat cecum. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2008;72:572–6. doi: 10.1271/bbb.70474Matsumoto M, Inoue R, Tsukahara T, et al. Voluntary running exercise alters microbiota composition and increases n-butyrate concentration in the rat cecum. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2008;72:572–6. doi: 10.1271/bbb.70474

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.